Thank you to Michael Jones and his ministry Inspiring Philosophy
An argument against the reliability of the Gospels is that Jesus taught in His native language of Aramaic, but the Gospels are written in Greek. Much could have been lost in translation, so the Gospels cannot contain the original words of Jesus.
But this might not be entirely true.
Although it’s not up for debate that Jesus’s primary language was Aramaic, it was common in that day for Jews to be able to converse in Greek or even be fully bilingual. In fact, when we look at the culture and the teachings of Jesus within the Gospels, we find some interesting evidence that Jesus often taught in Greek. This means the Gospels likely preserve some of the very words of Jesus, and the rest would have been easy for the apostles to translate.
When we think of Judea 2,000 years ago, we think of people who were primarily Aramaic speakers. This is true, but in the ancient world due to vast trade networks, Hellenization, and the extent of the Roman Empire many people were bilingual or even trilingual. Greek was widely spoken across the Roman Empire and was the main language of the eastern half.
The scholar Maurice Casey notes that in the Second Temple period, Greek was widely used throughout Israel:
“By the time of the Maccabees, many Jews had hellenised, a process which included the building of a gymnasium and undergoing aspects of Greek education (1 Macc. 1.11–15; 2 Macc. 4.7–17). We must infer that assimilating Jews in Jerusalem learnt Greek.” – Maurice Casey, Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel, p. 74
“68% of all of the ancient Jewish inscriptions from the Mediterranean world are in Greek… In Judea, it is estimated that 55 to 60% of all of them are in Greek…. In this period, Jerusalem’s ruling council was called by a Greek name Sanhedrin (Greek, synedrion).” – Stanley E. Porter, Did Jesus Ever Teach in Greek? Tyndale Bulletin, 1993.
Peter William van der Horst says:
“The first impression one gains from these data is that Greek was the language of the great majority among the Jews in the Imperial period, probably of more than two-thirds of them.” – P.W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, p. 22
Even the Essenes, the Jewish sect that lived in the wilderness, had Greek copies of the Hebrew Scriptures. Given their conservative stance on Jewish law, it’s unlikely that they would have used the Greek language if it wasn’t already a long-standing practice.
Evidence of Greek is also found at Masada, and we have found more ostraca (pottery inscriptions) in Greek from the region than in Aramaic or Hebrew.
There’s also good reason to think Greek was common in Galilee. Matthew referred to it as the “land of gentiles.” Greek was used in the court of Herod Antipas and was widely used in the cities of Sepphoris and Tiberias, both close to Nazareth.
Scholars like Casey, Porter, Kee, and Gleaves list a ton of additional evidence that demonstrates widespread knowledge of Greek in the region throughout the Second Temple period. So it’s reasonable to infer that Jewish tradesmen like carpenters or fishermen would have known Greek, living close to cities like Sepphoris merely from cultural interactions and trade.
Casey, Maurice. Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel. Cambridge University Press, 1998. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 102.
Porter, Stanley E. The Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research: Previous Discussion and New Proposals. T&T Clark, 2000.
Levine, Lee I., editor. The Galilee in Late Antiquity. Harvard University Press, 1992.
Gleaves, G. Scott. Did Jesus Speak Greek? The Emerging Evidence of Greek Dominance in First-Century Palestine. WestBow Press, 2015. Foreword by Rodney E. Cloud.
H.C. Kee says:
“This means that for Jesus to have conversed with inhabitants of cities in the Galilee, and especially of cities of the Decapolis and the Phoenician region, he would have had to have known Greek, certainly at the conversational level.” – The Galilee in Late Antiquity, edited by Lee I. Levine, p. 21
Greek had such a heavy influence on the region that Aramaic began incorporating Greek loanwords.
Maurice Casey notes this doesn’t demonstrate that Greek was the primary language of Judea. The evidence indicates Aramaic was the primary language for the inhabitants, but a large percentage of the population would have been bilingual. Most Jews would have probably been able to converse in Greek. Someone like Jesus who was first a carpenter and then a rabbi likely would have known Greek as a second language, given how widespread it was. Some scholars have even suggested Jesus also knew how to read Hebrew.
Maurice Casey, Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel
Casey says:
“General evidence therefore dictates that Jesus was brought up to speak Aramaic, and makes us take seriously the possibility that he also knew Greek and/or Hebrew.” – Maurice Casey, Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel, p. 81
Stanley Porter adds:
“…the archeological, linguistic and sociological evidence seems to indicate that the region was multilingual, including at least Aramaic and Greek in widespread and frequent use. . . . Therefore, the likelihood that Jesus, along with most Gentiles and Jews, was multilingual himself is strong.”- The Language of the New Testament: Context, History, and Development, edited by Stanley E. Porter and Andrew W. Pitts, p. 27
Within the Gospels, there are also indications Jesus knew Greek. John mentions that Greeks wanted to speak to Him (John 12:20-22). The implication is, they expected to speak with Him in their language. When the Jews were debating with Jesus and assumed He intended to go among the dispersion and teach the Greeks, the implication is that everyone knew Jesus spoke Greek in order to potentially teach them (John 7:35).
Many of Jesus’ parables show familiarity with cultural aspects of trade and government from the time period. Much of this would have been conducted in Greek, which suggests Jesus knew the language in order to gain this knowledge He displays in His parables.
Stanley Porter said:
“In the light of this accumulated evidence, which is overwhelming when compared to the equivalent Aramaic evidence, it is surprising that many scholars have not given more consideration to the hypothesis that Jesus spoke and even possibly taught in Greek, and furthermore that there is a possibility if not a likelihood that we have some of the actual words of Jesus recorded in the Gospels.” – Stanley E. Porter, Did Jesus Ever Teach in Greek?, Tyndale Bulletin, 1993
A.W. Argyle noted:
“…it is a mistake to assume that there must be Aramaic behind all His words. Some Aramaists in their enthusiasm for the theory of Aramaic in His sayings overstate their case and produce doubtful arguments.”- A. W. Argyle, “Did Jesus Speak Greek?” Expository Times, vol. 67, 1955, p. 93.
Given the language’s widespread use in the region and the amount of Gentiles Jesus and His disciples interacted with throughout the Gospels, it is likely He taught in Greek and many of these Greek teachings are preserved in the Gospels.
Porter argues there are at least eight episodes in the Gospels where Jesus spoke in Greek. Seven of these likely contain the original words of Jesus.
- John 4:46–54 – Jesus’ conversation with the official (possibly also Matthew 8:5–13)
- John 4:4–26 – Jesus’ conversation with the Samaritan woman
- Mark 2:13–14; Matthew 9:9; Luke 5:27–28 – The calling of Levi/Matthew
- Mark 7:25–30; Matthew 15:21–28 – Jesus’ conversation with the Syrophoenician woman
- Mark 12:13–17; Matthew 22:16–22; Luke 20:20–26 – Jesus’ remarks about the coin of Caesar
- Mark 8:27–30; Matthew 16:13–20; Luke 9:18–21 – Conversation at Caesarea Philippi
- Mark 15:2–5; Matthew 27:11–14; Luke 23:2–4; John 18:29–38 – Jesus’ trial before Pilate
- John 12:20–26 – Greeks seek Jesus
Porter, Stanley E. Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research. Bloomsbury Academic, 2004, pp. 147–163.
One of the most likely is when Jesus spoke with Pilate. Porter notes that none of the Gospels indicate a translator was needed for them to converse. The narrative context, in which Pilate speaks with the elders and with the crowd, suggests everyone was speaking the same language and that language would have been Greek. Given the multiple attestation of Pilate asking Jesus if He is a king or not, Porter argues we likely have some of the very words Jesus said to Pilate (Mark 15:2; John 18:37).
Mark also tells us that when Jesus went to the region of Tyre and Sidon, He spoke with a Syrophoenician woman. Porter suggests this indicates she was a Greek speaker by birth, and thus Jesus would have conversed with her in Greek (Mark 7:25-30).
Porter also notes that the way the conversation is worded between Jesus and His disciples at Caesarea Philippi suggests it was originally in Greek. The wordplay surrounding the name of Peter makes sense in Greek, with the terms for binding and loosening, and ᾅδης (Hades, or hell) (Mark 16:13-20).
“Jesus thus says, ‘You are πέτρος (a name for an individual male and a single stone) and upon this πέτρα (firm foundation of stone) I intend to build my church.’ This accounts well for the alternation in Greek words, unnecessary if it merely translates the same Aramaic word, and it accommodates general Greek usage of the two words as well.” – Porter, Stanley E. Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research. Bloomsbury Academic, 2004, pp. 147–163.
Porter continues:
“…since again this vocabulary is not a part of Matthew’s redactional tendency, or any of the Gospels’ for that matter, it appears possible if not likely that these words go back to Jesus himself.”- Porter, Stanley E. “Did Jesus Ever Teach in Greek?” – Tyndale Bulletin, vol. 44, 1993, pp. 199–231.
He suggests other passages also may contain original Greek statements of Jesus.
Peter J. Williams notes that some of the statements in the Sermon on the Mount may have originally been uttered in Greek.
“The first four Beatitudes begin with alliteration of pi (the Greek letter p), while the famous expressions ‘poor in spirit’ (5:3), ‘thirst for righteousness’ (5:6), ‘pure in heart’ (5:8), and ‘persecuted for righteousness’ (5:10) all involve alliteration and assonance, which seem to suggest that Matthew portrays Jesus as teaching (on this occasion) in Greek.” – Williams, Peter J. Can We Trust the Gospels?. Crossway, 2018, p. 108.
Before presenting the Sermon on the Mount, Matthew also reports that crowds came to hear Jesus from Galilee and Decapolis. Some scholars suggest the Sermon is an amalgamation of various teachings. But if Jesus actually gave a specific sermon that included these teachings, and the crowds came from Greek-speaking regions, then it could very well be that Jesus gave the sermon in Greek so more people could understand.
If it is an amalgamation, then given that Jesus would teach crowds from Greek-speaking regions like Decapolis, it’s still likely He would have taught them in Greek and many of those sayings are likely preserved in places like the Sermon on the Mount.
Maurice Casey suggests Matthew 6:2-5 may have originally been uttered in Greek. The word for hypocrite in Greek-ὑποκριτής-means “actor.” This meaning fits the context, referring to overly observant Jews seeking praise for their rituals. The closest Aramaic word for “actor” doesn’t show up until much later texts.
Casey writes:
“The sharper force of ὑποκριταί also fits the dramatic imagery of Matt. 6:2, 5, which clearly refers to the sort of behaviour found in cities. We should therefore conclude that Jesus used this Greek word polemically.” – Casey, Maurice. Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel. Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 82.
Casey suggests Jesus didn’t usually teach in Greek, but G. Scott Gleaves suggests it may have been more often than we realize. He notes that in the Gospels we have a few instances where the authors felt it necessary to translate an Aramaic phrase Jesus uttered. This could indicate that Jesus primarily taught in Greek, and only used Aramaic when listeners didn’t understand Greek well.
- “‘Talitha cumi,’ which means, ‘Little girl, I say to you, arise.’” – Mark 5:41
- “‘Corban’ (that is, given to God).” – Mark 7:11
- “‘Ephphatha,’ that is, ‘Be opened.’” – Mark 7:34
- “‘Abba, Father, all things are possible for you.’” – Mark 14:36“‘Eloi, Eloi, lema sabachthani?’ which means, ‘My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’” – Mark 15:34
Gleaves, G. Scott. Did Jesus Speak Greek? Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015, pp. 20–24.
Mark may indicate this by reproducing the Aramaic saying and translating it for us.
Nigel Turner said:
“…if Jesus regularly taught in Aramaic it is difficult to explain why St Mark adopted the curious practice of reproducing only some, and not all, of his sayings in Aramaic. St Mark gives no more than talitha cumi, 5.41; qorban, 7.11; ephphatha, 7.34; abba, 14.36; eloi eloi lema sabachthani, 15.34. One would think that the evangelist’s reason for reproducing this particular selection of transliterations is that, contrary to his usual way, Jesus spoke in Aramaic on these occasions. The reason why is not so clear, but on some of them he may have been addressing individuals whose sole language was Aramaic.”- Porter, Stanley E., editor. The Language of the New Testament: Classic Essays. BRILL, 1991, p. 182.
Still, Maurice Casey cautions us not to go too far. At times, the Greek in Mark is hard to understand, and Jesus’ words make more sense when reconstructed in Aramaic. There probably are underlying Aramaic sayings in the Gospels.
So we cannot conclude Jesus overwhelmingly taught in Greek, but it’s also incorrect to say He only taught in Aramaic. Given the cultural context, Jesus likely used both languages, depending on who He was talking to.
N.T. Wright adds:
“If we come to the ministry of Jesus as first-century historians, and forget our twentieth-century assumptions about mass media, the overwhelming probability is that most of what Jesus said, he said not twice but 200 times, with (of course) a myriad of local variations.” – Wright, N. T. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press, 1992, p. 123.
Some of the disciples had Greek names like Philip which indicates Greek was common among Jesus’ followers. In John 12:20-22, when Greeks ask Philip to see Jesus, they likely asked in Greek, and this suggests the disciples spoke Greek as well.
The early Christians would have been well equipped to translate anything Jesus taught in Aramaic. But it’s quite likely Jesus taught in both Greek and Aramaic, and many of the words in the Gospels preserve the original sayings of Jesus as He uttered them. And the disciples would have been able to translate any original Aramaic saying with ease.
Even Bart Erhman says:
Several of my recent posts have elicited comments from multiple participants (same comment, asked in a variety of ways). One of them had to do with the question of the language that Jesus would have spoken with Pontius Pilate during his trial. A number of people have asked “why not Greek”? The logic behind this question/solution is that Pilate as an educated Roman would have been fluent in Greek; and Jesus, living in “Galilee of the Gentiles,” where he probably engaged in a small business (carpentry) would have had to communicate with the non-Jews in his midst, and so probably could speak Greek as well. Moreover, he grew up in Nazareth not far from the urbane city of Sepphoris, and would have acquired Greek language and culture there.
That is a common view among many students of the Bible. And so what’s wrong with it?
As with most interesting questions, this one requires virtually an entire book to answer, so I will give only the short version, which is this: it is true that Pilate almost certainly could speak Greek, and almost certainly as true that Jesus could not. (article)
As Robert Gundry says:
“We cannot naively work on the assumption that everything was originally in Aramaic, that we should seek Aramaic equivalents wherever possible, and that wherever Aramaic equivalents cannot be traced we must reject authenticity. Whether we like it or not, the matter is a great deal more complex. But with the added complications of a trilingual milieu in first-century Palestine, there is the compensation that parts of the gospel tradition which may have sounded too Hellenistic to be authentic may be authentic after all, and that many of the dominical sayings in the present Greek text of the gospels may be closer to the ipsissima verba of Jesus than has been supposed. Many may, in fact, be identical with dominical sayings originally spoken in Greek.” – Gundry, Robert H. “The Language Milieu of First-Century Palestine: Its Bearing on the Authenticity of the Gospel Tradition.” Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 83, no. 4, 1964, p. 408.
Sources
1. Maurice Casey
Casey, Maurice. Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel. Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 74, 81, 82.
2. Stanley E. Porter
Porter, Stanley E. “Did Jesus Ever Teach in Greek?” Tyndale Bulletin, vol. 44, 1993, pp. 199–231.
Porter, Stanley E. Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research. Bloomsbury Academic, 2004, pp. 147–163.
Porter, Stanley E., and Andrew W. Pitts, editors. The Language of the New Testament: Context, History, and Development. Brill, 2013, p. 27.
Porter, Stanley E., editor. The Language of the New Testament: Classic Essays. Brill, 1991, p. 182.
3. P. W. van der Horst
van der Horst, Pieter Willem. Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. Peeters Publishers, 1991, p. 22.
4. Lee I. Levine (editor)
Levine, Lee I., editor. The Galilee in Late Antiquity. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1992, p. 21.
5. G. Scott Gleaves
Gleaves, G. Scott. Did Jesus Speak Greek? The Emerging Evidence of Greek Dominance in First-Century Palestine. WestBow Press, 2015, pp. 20–24.
6. Peter J. Williams
Williams, Peter J. Can We Trust the Gospels? Crossway, 2018, p. 108.
7. A. W. Argyle
Argyle, A. W. “Did Jesus Speak Greek?” The Expository Times, vol. 67, no. 3, 1955, pp. 91–93.
8. Robert H. Gundry
Gundry, Robert H. “The Language Milieu of First-Century Palestine: Its Bearing on the Authenticity of the Gospel Tradition.” Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 83, no. 4, 1964, pp. 404–408.9. N. T. Wright
Wright, N. T. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press, 1992, p. 123.
