“I don’t intend to take away from the valuable content in this article; my goal is simply to enhance it by emphasizing key points for readers. The sources listed below, as well as the section titles, are my additions. I hope this makes the information clearer and more helpful for you. Thank you to The Black Doctor for compiling all the valuable information in this article. His Youtube (1) and tick tock (2) are listed above.” – AC
Non-Christian Sources
- Tacitus (56-120 AD):
Roman historian. In Annals (Book 15, Section 44), confirms Jesus’ crucifixion under Pontius Pilate during Tiberius’ reign. - Flavius Josephus (1st century AD):
Jewish historian. In Antiquities of the Jews, confirms Jesus’ crucifixion by Pilate and His followers’ claim of resurrection (Testimonium Flavianum). - Bart Ehrman:
Agnostic scholar. In Did Jesus Exist?, notes that Tacitus supports Christian sources on Jesus’ crucifixion and views the Gospels as independent historical sources. - Celsus and Lucian:
Satirical writers. They mock Christians for worshiping a “crucified sage,” affirming the historical belief in Jesus’ crucifixion. - Gerd Lüdemann:
Atheist New Testament professor. Dates the early Christian creed in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 to within two or three years of Jesus’ crucifixion (30-33 AD). - Robert Funk:
Non-Christian scholar. Confirms belief in Jesus’ resurrection was established by Paul’s conversion around 33 AD. - James Dunn:
Atheist professor. Confirms the tradition about Jesus’ death and resurrection was passed to Paul within months of Jesus’ death. - John Dominic Crossan:
Co-founder of the Jesus Seminar. Asserts that Jesus’ crucifixion by Pontius Pilate is a well-established historical fact.
Christian Sources
- Paul (1 Corinthians 15:3-7):
Early Christian creed affirming Jesus’ death, burial, and resurrection, dated to 30-33 AD. - Acts of the Apostles (Acts 3:13-15):
An early oral tradition recording a speech about Jesus’ crucifixion under Pilate. - Isaiah (Isaiah 53):
Old Testament prophecy interpreted as referring to Jesus’ crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. - Psalm 22:
Christians interpret this as a prophecy of Jesus’ crucifixion, including the piercing of hands and feet. - Saint Athanasius:
Cites Psalm 22 as predicting Jesus’ crucifixion. - Saint Melito of Sardis:
Connects Christ’s crucifixion to the blood of the Passover lamb in Exodus 12. - John (John 19:37):
Quotes Zechariah 12:10 as a prophecy of Jesus’ crucifixion. - 1 Clement, Papias, Polycarp:
Early Christian writers who affirmed the historical reality of Jesus’ crucifixion.
Non-Christian Sources
Tacitus
Tacitus – Plebius Cornelius Tacitus was a Roman historian and politician who lived between 56-120AD. He’s regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by historical scholars. In one of his two major works, The Annals of Imperial Rome (which tells of the events of the empire from 14-68AD), he describes the Christian church and primarily describes their leader, Christ. He writes,
“Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular.” (Annals book 15 section 44).
Tacitus blames Nero for setting fire to Rome in 64AD and describes the Christians first by referring to Christ. Christians get their name from Him, and HE suffered the extreme penalty (which for Romans would be crucifixion) under the reign of Emperor Tiberius and procurator Pontius Pilate—between 26 and 36AD. We know Jesus’ existence and especially that he died by extreme penalty, or crucifixion. He doesn’t doubt the crucifixion but places him and his death as the reasons why Christians have their name. All of the information from Tacitus, as even Bart Ehrman notes, confirms information we have in our Christian sources.
Flavius Josephus
Josephus and His Testimonium Flavianum – Flavius Josephus was one of the most important figures from ancient Judaism. He serves as the primary source about the life and history of first-century Palestine. In his Magnum Opus, Antiquities of the Jews, he mentions multiple people named Jesus, John the Baptist, and in two places he mentions Jesus of Nazareth. The second mention is famously known as the Testimonium Flavianum. It’s the longest and most important non-Christian reference to Jesus outside of the Bible. As some scholars would note, some of the later editions of the testimony were touched up by Christian copyists in its transmission in order to signify that it’s the Jesus we’re talking about today (Ehrman 60). Here is what we find in an early Arabic manuscript, which is transcribed in John Meir’s book A Marginal Jew (59-69), which is what Josephus actually said:
“At this time, there was a wise man who was called Jesus, and his conduct was good, and he was known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and the other nations became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die. And those who had become his disciples did not abandon their loyalty to him. They reported that He had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion and that He was alive. Accordingly, they believed that he was the Messiah, concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders.”
Here is what a first-century Jew would say and what other scholars believe Josephus actually wrote. Here we have Josephus noting that Jesus did good deeds, was crucified under the order of Pontius Pilate, and continued to have followers after his death who claimed that He appeared to them alive three days later. Here in the original writings of Josephus, we have a clear affirmation of not only the existence of Jesus but His crucifixion and claims of His resurrection three days later by His followers.
Celsus and Lucian
I could also point to the satirical writings of Celsus (Cmnd/Ctrl + F “107”]) and Lucian, who mock the Christians for worshiping a “crucified sage” (Lucian; The Passing of Peregrinus, [Cmnd/Ctrl + F “crucified”]) and questioned whether or not if Jesus had died a different way, they would have glorified that method. These writers don’t attack Christianity by saying the crucifixion didn’t happen but argue against it theologically. Even these show that the historically reliable consensus among the non-Christians is that Jesus died on the cross.
“Celsus was a 2nd-century critic of Christianity who wrote a work titled “The True Word”. While his original text has been lost, the Christian theologian Origen responded to Celsus in his work “Against Celsus” (Contra Celsum).” – AC
Bart Ehrman
Now, in relation to historically reliable Christian sources, we have an abundance! And before you say, “Wait a second! You can’t use the Bible! It’s a religious text! You’re supposed to be looking at historically reliable sources!” The funny thing is, I am! The New Testament is not one book, but multiple books, which on their own, are independent sources. Bart Ehrman in his book Did Jesus Exist?, writes:
“Once it is conceded that the Gospels can and should be treated as historical sources, no different from other historical sources infused with their author’s biases, it starts to become clear why historians have almost universally agreed that whatever else one might say about him, Jesus of Nazareth lived in first-century Palestine and was crucified by the prefect of Judea…within the first century we have four independent accounts of Jesus’ life and death.” (Ehrman 74).
So Bart Ehrman himself, whatever else he thinks about the four Gospels, Acts, and the rest of the New Testament, views them as independent historical sources on the life of Jesus, primarily his death.
“On Bart Ehrman’s blog, he also affirms this position. This article, however, focuses on providing evidence for the crucifixion, despite Ehrman’s personal biases against the Gospels in certain areas of critique. – AC
‘It would take an entire book to answer your question adequately, but I do want to say a couple of things about it. The crucifixion of Jesus by the Romans is one of the most secure facts we have about his life.
Whenever anyone writes a book about the historical Jesus, it is really (really, really) important to see if what they say about his public ministry can make sense of his death.’ – Why Was Jesus Crucified: Bart Ehrman Crucifixion Thoughts (Article)
Additionally, in another article reposted by Biblical Scholar Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D., he shares that while the article is not his original work, he has made it available on his site, as noted in his disclaimer.
“Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own.” – Dr. Bart D. Ehrman
Here is the quotation that Dr. Joshua Schachterle writes in his article quoting Bart Erhman in his article.
In A Brief Introduction to the New Testament, Bart Ehrman writes that “the most certain element of the tradition about Jesus is that he was crucified on the orders of the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate.” In other words, this is one element of the story of Jesus in the Gospels that virtually all scholars agree truly happened. – Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D.”
If that weren’t enough, Dr. Ehrman also did an interview with Apostate Prophet, where he confirmed that the crucifixion of Jesus Christ is one of the most well-established events in history, directly opposing the Islamic view that Jesus was not crucified. This alternative view, denying the crucifixion, can be traced back to the heretic Basilides around 140 AD. Although the Gnostic gospel associated with this belief no longer exists, it is referenced by Irenaeus of Lyons. In his work “Against Heresies” (Latin: Adversus Haereses) written around 180 AD and discussed it.(video).
Here is the quote:
“Wherefore he did not himself suffer death, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compelled, bore the cross in his stead; so that this latter being transfigured by him, that he might be thought to be Jesus, was crucified, through ignorance and error, while Jesus himself received the form of Simon, and, standing by, laughed at them…” – Irenaeus, Against Heresies (Book 1, Chapter 24, Section 4)
Paul (1 Corinthians 15:3-7)
Next, we have the writings of Paul, whom for the sake of the obvious bias against him by our Muslim friends, we will not delve into, except for pointing out this one fact. That being, the pre-existing creedal statement found in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7, quoted by Paul, dates as being in existence during the earliest possible period of the Christian church, 30-33 AD, BEFORE the apostle Paul even began writing! So what does this early creed, which the apostle Paul received from the early church actually say?
“For I delivered to you first of all that which I also received: that [Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, and that He was buried, and that He rose again the third day according to the Scriptures, and that He was seen by Cephas, then by the twelve. After that He was seen by over five hundred brethren at once, of whom the greater part remain to the present, but some have fallen asleep. After that He was seen by James, then by all the apostles.] Then last of all He was seen by me also, as by one born out of due time.” ~ 1 Corinthians 15:3-8
Gerd Lüdemann
According to the academic consensus among Christian, and even the most skeptical atheist scholars, we see this as their view on its dating. Such as: Gerd Lüdemann, an atheist New Testament professor, who says:
“…the elements in the tradition are to be dated to the first two years after the crucifixion of Jesus…not later than three years… the formation of the appearance traditions mentioned in I Cor.15.3-8 falls into the time between 30 and 33 CE.” – The Resurrection of Jesus: History, Experience, Theology
Robert Funk
Robert Funk (a non-Christian scholar, founder of the Jesus Seminar) says:
“…The conviction that Jesus had risen from the dead had already taken root by the time Paul was converted about 33 C.E. On the assumption that Jesus died about 30 C.E., the time for development was thus two or three years at most.” – Honest to Jesus: Jesus for a New Millennium, p. 126
James D.G. Dunn
James Dunn (atheist professor at Durham) notes:
“Despite uncertainties about the extent of tradition which Paul received, there is no reason to doubt that this information was communicated to Paul as part of his introductory catechesis (1Cor 16.3). He would have needed to be informed of precedents in order to make sense of what had happened to him. When he says, ‘I handed on (paredoka) to you as of first importance (en protois) what I also received (parelabon)’ (15.3), he assuredly does not imply that the tradition became important to him only at some subsequent date. More likely he indicates the importance of the tradition to himself from the start; that was why he made sure to pass it on to the Corinthians when they first believed (15.1-2). This tradition, we can be entirely confident, was formulated as tradition within months of Jesus’ death.” – Dunn, James D.G. Christianity in the Making, Volume 1: Jesus Remembered. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, p. 855-856.
John Dominic Crossan
I could go through the rest of the New Testament, look at the early writings of 1 Clement, Papias, Polycarp, the Epistle to Diognetus, etc. But the point that I think you see is the point made by both Christian, non-Christian, and non-religious historical scholars, that:
“One of the most certain facts of history is that Jesus was crucified on orders of the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate.” (John Dominic Crossan, co-founder of the Jesus Seminar).
Aside from those who do not believe Jesus even existed, there is no credible scholar who believes that Jesus was not crucified. No one, that is, aside from our Muslim friends.
Why do our Muslim friends deny the crucifixion of Jesus?
Because of 40 Arabic words, said 600 years after the event itself, from a man who lived hundreds of miles away from the events or the earliest witnesses. Here is what the Quran says in Surah 4:157 (Yusuf Ali Translation):
“That they said (in boast), ‘We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah’; but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not.”
In this verse, one assertion is straightforward: Jesus did not die on the cross. Instead of Jesus being put on the cross and killed, “it was made to appear” to them. The Sahih International translation renders the verse as saying “but [another] was made to resemble him to them.”
These assertions leave a huge question unanswered:
If Jesus was not crucified, who was? Unfortunately, there are no hadith on this issue, but there have been a few answers provided by Islamic commentators and scholars over time:
- Ibn Abbas claims that Allah made a man named Tatianos look like Jesus, and they crucified this man instead.
- Al-Jalalayn says it was an associate of the Jews who was disguised and crucified.
- Ibn al-Kathir claims it was a young man in Jesus’ company who volunteered to replace Jesus on the cross!
Let’s review here:
We are expected to overthrow the entire consensus of secular historical sources, Christian historical sources, and all reputable historical scholars for the sake of an assertion that “it wasn’t really Jesus. God disguised some random guy instead, and we don’t know for certain who the other guy was.” I’m sorry, but I’m going with the consensus of recorded history, here.
Theological Reflection: Why the Crucifixion Matters
Now, to put on my Theologian cap, we come to the heart of the issue. We see from history that Jesus died. But the question is, why does it matter? Well, it matters because we are sinners in need of a savior. Allow me to explain:
In the beginning, God created man upright. He entered into a covenant with him, commanding him to avoid one Tree in Eden, the Tree of knowledge of Good and evil. If they violated God’s covenant, they would surely die. Unfortunately, as we all know, Adam and Eve sinned against God, and God, by His own promise, is obligated to judge them. And that He does. However, look at Genesis 3:15. In the midst of Judgment, God makes this promise: “I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel.” God promises to make war through the seed of humanity. This man will suffer greatly, but his acts will defeat the serpent and bring salvation to God’s people. This promise of a suffering savior is portrayed throughout the Old Testament. From God clothing Adam and Eve in animal skins, to the Levitical sacrificial system. Let’s focus on that for a second.
Why did God create the sacrificial system? What was its purpose? Its purpose was to begin to provide a way for God to righteously forgive His people’s sins and restore their broken covenant relationship. God defines His character in Exodus 34:6-7.
The LORD passed before him {Moses} and proclaimed, “The LORD, the LORD, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, 7 keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children and the children’s children, to the third and the fourth generation.”
God holds his mercy and his justice with “both hands” so to speak. He is not only merciful, but he will not let the guilty go unpunished. When God forgives a sinner, he will find a way to do it that is both consistent with His justice and his mercy. He lays this principle out before the eyes of Israel in the sacrificial system. The penalty for sin is the life of the sinner, but in the sacrificial system, especially the sacrifice of the Day of Atonement the the life of the sinner is atoned in the blood of an animal. life is in the blood. All throughout the book of Leviticus, we see that it is through sacrifice and the blood (which represents the life) of the sacrifice that atonement is made, and it is because of that sacrifice that forgiveness of sins is offered. We find this principle in texts like Leviticus 4:20, 4:28-35, 17:11, and the whole of chapter 16! In these passages on sin offerings, we see that the sins of the perpetrator are imputed to the animal, and the animal is killed in his stead. In this sacramental system we learn of two principles that serve as the basis for God justly forgiving us: Propitiation- a sacrifice that turns away wrath, and expiation- a sacrifice that covers sin. It is because a substitute covers sin and turns away God’s wrath through its life that we have forgiveness of sins.
It is this principle that the Prophet Isaiah speaks about when he talks about the Servant in Isaiah 52:13-53:12. It is this passage, among others, that is applied to Jesus, His miracles, and His sufferings by Matthew (Mt 8:14-17), John (Jn 12:37-41), Peter (1 Peter 1:9-25) and even Jesus Himself in the night of His betrayal (Lk 22:36-38). This passage, among many others, is why Jesus Himself said on multiple times that He was going to die and be raised three days later, that He would give His life as a ransom for many, in Matthew 20:18-19 “See, we are going up to Jerusalem. And the Son of Man will be delivered over to the chief priests and scribes, and they will condemn him to death and deliver him over to the Gentiles to be mocked and flogged and crucified, and he will be raised on the third day.” Mark 9:31 “The Son of Man is being betrayed into the hands of men, and they will kill Him. And after He is killed, He will rise the third day.” Luke 18:31-34 Then He took the twelve aside and said to them, “Behold, we are going up to Jerusalem, and all things that are written by the prophets concerning the Son of Man will be accomplished. For He will be delivered to the Gentiles and will be mocked and insulted and spit upon. They will scourge Him and kill Him. And the third day He will rise again.” and especially, after His resurrection, he says Luke 24:44-47, “These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.” 45 Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, 46 and said to them, “Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead, 47 and that repentance for the forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem.” Jesus says himself that He was supposed to die, and as a result, repentance for the forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in His name through all the earth. It’s in Christ’s sacrifice where Justice and mercy meet.
This realization is not just found in Holy Scripture, but also in the Church Fathers. St. Cyril of Jerusalem as he speaks on the crucifixion of Christ writes,
“These things the Savior endured, and made peace through the Blood of His Cross, for things in heaven, and things in earth. For we were enemies of God through sin, and God had appointed the sinner to die. There must needs therefore have happened one of two things; either that God, in His truth, should destroy all men, or that in His loving-kindness He should cancel the sentence. But behold the wisdom of God; He preserved both the truth of His sentence, and the exercise of His loving-kindness.”
Cyril moves in the same pattern as St. Athanasius of Alexandria as he describes the question of why Jesus had to die. Through sin, we have been made enemies of God. We are at enmity with God. God, through the covenant of works, laid the standard that the soul who sins shall die (Ezekiel 18:20). God, being just, cannot go back on His word. In order for God to forgive men, says Cyril, God must either destroy all men or cancel his law. The latter would be the consequences of “just forgiving” someone. While the god of Islam and mortal men might be happy to do this, Yahweh in his wisdom unites both these standards at the Cross. In the crucifixion of Christ, God upholds his justice as well as displays his lovingkindness and mercy towards sinners. The True God does not have to pick and choose between his attributes, Unlike the God of Islam.
In Islam, mercy and justice are not borne together by Allah. According to Islam, God’s mercy prevails over His justice. (Sahih al-Bukhari 3194) Not only do we have this blatant statement, we also see it displayed in Sahih al- Bukhari 3740, also known as the story of the man who killed 99 People. Have a bit of a listen.
“Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: The Prophet ﷺ said, “Amongst the men of Bani Israel there was a man who had murdered ninety-nine persons. Then he set out asking (whether his repentance could be accepted or not). He came upon a monk and asked him if his repentance could be accepted. The monk replied in the negative and so the man killed him. He kept on asking till a man advised to go to such and such village. (So he left for it) but death overtook him on the way. While dying, he turned his chest towards that village (where he had hoped his repentance would be accepted), and so the angels of mercy and the angels of punishment quarreled amongst themselves regarding him. Allah ordered the village (towards which he was going) to come closer to him, and ordered the village (whence he had come), to go far away, and then He ordered the angels to measure the distances between his body and the two villages. So he was found to be one span closer to the village (he was going to). So he was forgiven.” (Sahih al-Bukhari 3470)
The narrative in this passage is straightforward but also quite shocking. A murderer begins asking about repentance when he meets a monk. When the monk gives him an answer he does not like, he kills the poor man. Now, he has killed an even one-hundred men. As he attempts to go into another village to find repentance, he dies. The narrative then turns to the angels of mercy and punishment, who argue over the man’s soul. The angel of punishment has a solid argument. The man has killed 100 people and possibly has not repented. The angel of mercy could only argue that the man was on his way to a city where he might find acceptance for repentance. Allah then intervenes to settle the matter: He moves the village where he was going closer and pushes the village where he left far behind. Then, on the basis that the man’s body is one span closer to the village he was going to, he is forgiven and taken into heaven. There is no mention of repentance being the basis of Allah’s forgiveness here.
There are so many things wrong with this story from a theological perspective. In the case of Justice, a man has killed one hundred people, possibly has not repented, and Allah accepts him into heaven on the basis of an arbitrary excuse. I ask the reader, where is Allah’s justice? Where is the law of Allah upheld? It is nowhere to be found. In giving mercy to this man without any justice, Allah’s law is allowed to remain broken. God’s nature is torn into pieces. His justice and wrath against sin are not satisfied. Allah, as stated in the hadith, has prioritized his mercy over his justice. His nature is immediately insulted.
This, my friends, is why you need the cross. You are a sinner under the wrath of a just God. Your repentance and good works cannot satisfy God’s righteous requirements or warrant Allah’s mercy. And the true God cannot and must not prioritize one attribute over another to forgive us. Only Yahweh can forgive us without destroying his attributes, and He has done so in the cross of Jesus Christ. As you meditate on these things, ask yourself two questions: Who is actually using historical sources and being consistent in their worldview, and second of all, Can God sacrifice one of His attributes for the sake of using another? Think about that, and fall in love with the One who was crucified on your behalf, and has stamped that act of pure love in the sands of time. Thank you.
The New Testament Documents and the Historicity of the Resurrection
